Added: June 17, 2006
Leaders as functioning elements of organisations are not formally nominated, selected, elected or appointed nor are they born, they are accepted and followed.
Leadership is a social skill. It consists of certain attitudes and behaviour (acts) towards others and a way of conducting one self which enables a person to cause others to follow his willingly or which enables one to cause others to follow him for a common goal. The ability of a person to cause others to follow him for a goal is the mark of leadership.
Some times followers are attracted to a leader who represents their values and aspirations, and they are willing to place themselves under the leadership of a person who can re-find and act on those values. Mahatma Gandhi was one such leader.
When a group of people are working together, there is nearly always an element of uncertainty amongst them. This uncertainty prompts people to choose a leader. Leader reduces uncertainty and confusion in a group. He enables the group to keep it focus on particular goals. In the case of managerial and supervisory leadership in an Organisation, the leader keeps the members of his work group focused on the objectives of the organization.
A person becomes a leader by displaying certain attitudes and behaviours towards others, which one is not born with and those which can be developed through learning and deliberate practice.
Those who display leadership direct other or work through people and get a particular work done by them or galvanize them into productive action or educate and evaluate them or hold the group focus on certain desired goals.
Leadership must help people. This calls for two attitudes to be present in the leader viz. (a) Empathy and (b) caring.
Empathy is the ability to project oneself imaginatively into other person and momentarily share his perceptions about him and the outside world. In other words, it means understanding of other person.
Empathy is different from sympathy. Empathy means understanding other person and his problems without oneself becoming emotionally involved, like a surgeon who deals with the emotions of others in crisis, cares for them and saves them, without becoming emotionally involved.
While exercising leadership (or helping people in group action), the leader should not play tricks and gimmicks, such as showing carrots, which are never giving or making false promises to keep the other man in hopes, flattering the other man without really meaning it, posing that he is his benefactors, posing to share interest with him etc., on the other hand, the relationship should be authentic. It should be a process of helping people which involves understanding, trusting, accepting, developing, recognizing them and their worth and helping them to achieve their needs and goals. There is a feeling of power and achievement in helping process. It is however, a different kind of power feeling than bossing. There is dictator in every one of us and unless we develop awareness of ourselves, we may use acts of helping to dominate and not to do real help. Act of dominance always gives many some personal satisfactions.
Those who are in positions of authority and who boss over their subordinates for the pleasure it gives them are said to be authoritarian personalities. They indulge in free use of power (Coercive, keeping their subordinates on their toes) given to them for personal aggrandizement, with negative consequences on organisation productivity and staff discipline.
Positions of Manager/Supervisor and Position of Leader
Manager-ship and supervisor-ship are broader terms than leadership. Those include more functions than leadership. Manager-ship and supervisor-ship include such functions as planning, organizing, staffing, directing, integrating and controlling of resources – time, money, materials and people to achieve organisational goals. Each of these resources can be planned, organized, directed, integrated and controlled but only one of these resources – people can be lead Efficiency in the utilization of other resources-time and money depends upon the effective use of human resources or manpower and this achieved by exercising right leadership. That is, it is a part of management/supervision. But it is not all of it. A Manager/Supervisor is required to plan and organize, but all we ask of a leader is that he gets others to follow. Leadership is a process of influencing and controlling others using power. Power is the ability of a person to dominate the values or goals of others. Power is a mode of influence. Influence is the ability of an individual or group to induce others to produce the desired result. Power is an important attribute in any type of relation. The amount of power determines the ability of person to influence others. There are different sources of power vested in an Officer/Supervisor. Those are:
1. The authority invested in the position, generally accepted by the subordinates. It is the hierarchical organisation of positions in terms of responsibility and the need to control the work of subordinates. It is revealed in the organisational structure and organisational chart. The hierarchical relationship is also often called as “Reporting Relationships”.
2. Authority to reward and punish (sanctioned power)
This power is sanctioned by the organisation. The tangible power that is power to sanction tangible rewards like granting merit increments, promotions, well furnished office, personal Secretary, chauffeur driven car for personal use, services of Peon, Telephone facilities having direct line, giving mobile phones, offering club memberships, Leave Travel Concession, Financial Powers etc. and the power to impose punishments on subordinates, such as imposing minor punishments like warning, Censure etc., and major punishments like withholding increments, suspension, demotion, retrenchment etc., are vested in each of the Supervisory/Managerial positions in varying degrees depending upon the levels. These powers are laid down in organisational Manuals under Administrative powers. The procedures to be followed in exercising these powers are also detailed.
If the boss is perceived as able to control rewards and punishments then he has these tangible powers.
3. Psychological Reward and Punishments
As opposed to the above kinds of tangible rewards and punishments there are several psychological rewards and punishments, which superiors can administer.
Some of the positive rewards (incentives) are appreciation, recognition, acceptance and listening, taking personal interest in subordinates etc. Some examples of negative incentives are keeping the subordinate at a distance, ignoring or being indifferent towards them or not taking any particular interest in them; being critical and harsh with them; and behaving with them in a condescending manner, keeping them on their toes and so on.
These types of rewards and punishments and their use are not specified any where in the volumes of organisational Rules and Regulations. Their use is left to the discretion of the managers. However, the organisation encourages the use of positive psychological rewards by managers and develops their skill in using them through training, for the optimum work potentials of their staff.
4. Expert Power
A supervisor with this type of power is one with some expertise, special skills or knowledge. The possession of one or more of these attributes make compliance of subordinates possible. Subordinates like to emulate their efficient boss. In other words, a superior who sets personal example by being enthusiastic, efficient and hardworking will have subordinates who are equally exciting and efficient in their work.
5. Referent Power
This power is based on the follower’s identification with the leader. They admire their leaders/ superiors, because of one or more of their personal qualities. Some of these qualities are;
- Exemplary courage in the face of difficult situations.
- Ability to deal with emergency situations.
- Being fair and firm, and open in dealings with people.
- Holding same values and aspirations as those possessed by followers/subordinates and striving for their realization. People place themselves under the leadership of those who act on the values which they cherish and experience vicarious satisfaction or satisfaction of those values through their identification with the leader.
- Perception of the follower/subordinates that their leader/superior will work in their best interests.
6. Persuasive Power
This is power, the superior uses in influencing his subordinates when he listens to them, discuses with them their problems, shares their view points, use facts, information, logic and reasoning and attempts to convince their subordinates. He does not use his persuasive power, when he forces his opinions and decisions upon his subordinates; and he uses coercive power (weight) of his sanctioned power (or authority). To use persuasive power, calls for some special ability and skills. For a boss, coercion (the act of forcing one’s views and decisions on others) may come as natural as any of his daily habits. Application of persuasive power needs certain personal sacrifice, self discipline and attempt on the part of the superiors to get best out of their staff for the department.
Leader Behaviour
The successful leadership depends on acts and not on personal traits, as it was thought years ago. It requires behaviours that unite and stimulate followers towards definite objectives in specific situations. The supervisors are expected to display leadership behaviour by encouraging them as individuals and members of the team to work efficiently and to maintain work discipline.
The following are some of the typical behaviour which people in leadership positions display:
1. Representation – Speaking and acting as the representatives of the group, taking with higher ups problems faced by their subordinates and ideas expressed by them in regard to work and supporting the case of their subordinates before top management, whenever it is warranted.
2. Demand Reconciliation – Reconciling conflicting demands and reducing confusion and disorder in the group.
3. Tolerance of uncertainty – Feelings of being comfortable to work under conditions of uncertainty, ability to make sense out of a problem situation, working with confidence and striking solutions.
4. Persuasiveness – Persuasiveness (as opposed to forcing others) is the skill to influence others by using positive motivation. This is achieved by Leadership.
- Being friendly and approachable.
- Seeing from other’s points of view.
- Giving each individual a sense of importance, taking them seriously.
- Encouraging team spirit.
- Discussing with them job matters-jobs and the method of doing.
- Consulting them and respecting their opinions on matters that affect them.
- Using facts and logic in arguments and attempting to convince.
- Giving them adequate freedom in their job (proper delegation of authority)
- Constantly urging them to perform well, by injecting a spirit of competition in the group.
- Appreciating good work and guiding and training people to do a job well.
- Giving them opportunity to use their special skills and abilities and to master new skills.
5. Production Emphasis – Telling about duties (what is expected from subordinates), goals and work standards, setting goals and work standards: reviewing progress in work and encouraging them to work efficiently.
6. Work Facilitation – Creating conditions necessary for work, providing materials and facilities, proper physical conditions etc.,
Views on Leadership
The following are some of the current thinking regarding leadership.
1. Coercive view
Under coercive view superior uses fear of punishment, coercion and threats to make subordinates conform to his wishes. Uses of threats and punishments has become increasingly difficult today, because of the laws protecting employees from arbitrary actions on the part of the employers and also, because of growing trade union strength.
However, these sanctions are still used in many organisations. Under coercive approach, the employees may manage to get away by doing minimum amount of work that will keep them safe from punishments. They may also resentment overtly or covertly. Their attitude towards Administration hardens and these hardened attitudes turn them into union activists showing confrontational attitudes towards Management/ Administration.
Even in R & D institutions we find today formation of scientific workers Associations (S.W.A)
They may also develop confronting behaviour and sense of dependency. They may not display any originality and may not attempt any improvement in their work. On the other hand, they may turn to be rigid and may resist any attempt to introduce any change in the work, such as innovations and Computerization. The very idea of change threatens them. They fear that they will loose their jobs or that they will not succeed in learning the new jobs. When changes (such as office automation and computerization) in the modern organisations are inevitable, the coercive leadership styles, if practiced, will develop employee resistance to the introduction of such changes.
2. The Mechanistic View
According to this, the employees are regarded as machines which should put forth the required efforts, if they are informed about their jobs and if proper conditions (the right work load, good office supply of paper and other materials and equipments) are given. No special effort is considered necessary on the part of superiors in creating certain social and psychological conditions for the subordinates. Under this system, superiors do not pay any particular attention to their subordinates and work. Just as a machine will start working when it is switched on, so also it is thought that the human machines will start producing when the necessary inputs such as job instructions and tools and materials are given.
Under this climate, the employees carry out work in a disinterested routine way. They do not show initiative and readiness to undertake tasks assigned by their superiors, realizing importance and urgency. Many times, they even evade work, do not show individual responsibility and pass the buck. They experience their work as monotonous. They work because of their, other attractions outside, which their jobs afford than to go for. They also spend considerable times gossiping on the job. They hardly perceive the objectives which are to be achieved while performing their tasks nor attach any importance to them. They try hard to show that they keep busy with their work. They may also bring in many things which are outside their work. They may also bring in many things which are outside their work to the job context such as spending office time for planning cultural programmes, transacting private business etc., Lack of co-ordination and delay in the execution of work are invariably seen at all levels. Superiors lack adequate control over their subordinates. They get work done by their subordinates by appealing to their personal loyalties and by exchanging favours rather than by their legitimate role authority. One finds very little work discipline among employees under this climate.
3. The stage of Psychological Motivation.
Under this style, superiors try to exert positive influence over their subordinates, by providing them opportunities in the job and while at work to satisfy several of their social and psychological needs, by creating appropriate conditions to enable them productive. The Hawthorne Experiments conducted in 1933 on Productivity and Working conditions revealed the fact that employees work harder and efficiently even when the physical conditions are below normal, when their jobs, leadership and other organisational practices provide scope for satisfaction of many of their social and psychological needs. This study marks the beginning of such attempts which are termed as ‘Human Relations Movement’.
The styles of Leadership
Management scholars have made successful attempts to classify the leadership behaviours into different categories (or styles) according to the following factors:
a) The authority used to reward and punish.
b) The extent with which positive, negative, tangible and psychological rewards are used by the leader.
c) The use of power other than formal authority
d) Freedom and participation allowed to subordinates as against enforcement of compliance (or acting democratically as against actively dominating or employee-centered approach as against authoritarian approach and tight control)
The following are some examples given by an author on differences between behaviour of a “Boss” and a “Leader”.
The Boss The Leader
Drives his men Coaches his men
Counts on Authority Gets their good will
Keeps them guessing and fearful Arouses their enthusiasm
Talks about “I” Makes it “We”
Says “get here on time” Gets there ahead of time
Finds blame for break down Fixes the breakdown/assists subordinates to correct
Knows how it is done Shows how it is done
Makes work a drudgery Makes work interesting
Says “Go” Says “let us go”
What is an effective leadership style?
There is difference of opinion regarding the amount of control the leader should exert on subordinates, the extent of freedom to be given and the amount of pressure to be exerted on subordinates for production. According to democratic style, the leader should give freedom to the subordinates to set goals, and to the job they think ‘fit’ so long as the goals are met. He should delegate authority to the subordinates and should not supervise their work too closely. It is said that he should not unduly emphasis achievement of production goals as the members would realize need for it, if they are properly motivated and inturn they are genuinely interested in their work.
Under authoritarian leadership, the leader maintains tight control over the group and its activities. The members are told what to do and how to do it. All the decisions are made by the leader. Much pressure is to put on subordinates for achieving production.
Reward - Punishment Orientation
An authoritarian leader may use either of these approaches:
(1) Predominantly punishments both tangible like giving warning, charge sheeting, censure etc.
(2) Predominantly Rewards – The Authoritarian Manager/Supervisor (Leader) may administer rewards for the compliance of his staff. The rewards may be tangible ones like early confirmation, promotion or even minor concessions which he can allow with in his power like quick sanctioning of vehicle loan, house building loan, providing furnished office, telephone and assistants, giving transfer to a place of choice, and many other small favours, which constitute material incentives. Some of the psychological rewards, which he might give are acceptance and approval, liking, taking the subordinates into confidence, informality and personal warmth, sympathizing and supporting. He may support his subordinates when they listen to him, when they are not assertive, when they are loyal to him and when they serve his personal interest. The authoritarian (or Autocratic) leader who predominantly uses (external) reward approach for controlling his subordinates is called ‘Benevolent Authoritarian’ leader and he who uses predominantly punishment approach is called “Coercive Authoritarian Leader”.
Between these two extremes there is another type of leader who uses both “Rewards” and “Punishments”. He is often called as using “Carrot and Stick” approach. He rewards his subordinates for their particular behaviour which he wants from them. He may also promise a reward and may keep the subordinate in hope to get the work done. In other words, he may show he carrot, but he may not give either to keep his subordinates in perpetual hope or that it is not with in his power to give. Similarly may like recommending the case of his subordinate for promotion, give him transfer and posting in the place of his choice etc., These superiors mostly use tangible rewards. They do not make much use of psychological rewards, probably because of their limited knowledge and practical skill. Along with rewarding a desired behaviour; he also punishes his subordinates for his conduct which he does not expect from them. Again, his tendency will be to impose tangible Punishments – punishments which are easy to impose. Such as reprimanding subordinates in the presence of others, seeking explanation, charge sheeting, issuing punishment orders, with-holding increments and imposing other punishments which a superior can impose exercising his authority.
Very little attempt is made and made consciously to correct the subordinates using psychological punishments, the record of which does not go into their service records. There are very many situations which the superior can create in the organisation which are more effective in correcting the behaviour of the staff than the above limited approaches to punishment. Some of the psychological punishments are the superior being indifferent to the subordinate, ignoring him and paying special attention to their colleagues, not involving him in any important activities taking place in the organisation (keeping him out of the main stream of organisational activities), nor sharing with him important Departmental information, not giving him any chance to take initiative, organize and show up in any social and recreational activities that take place within the organisational context, not keeping him as person in whom the superior has confidence and with whom the superior can share his moments of informality, keeping him socially at a distance etc. Here the superior deprives subordinates certain sources of satisfaction, which the subordinate cannot demand legally. If these are withheld, the subordinates cannot accuse the boss that it was an act of victimization, as he can do in the case of physical punishments including reprimands. Because the above kinds of satisfactions are not in the form of employee ‘right’ or ‘demand’. These are perceived as those which the superior can dispense with at his will particularly to reinforce the right type of behaviour on the part of subordinates.
However, the question of withholding the above sources of satisfaction arises, only if they are present in the job satisfaction.
Carrot and stick philosophy
The method of showing ’carrot and stick’ will work only in the short run. This is so particularly, if the carrots can only be shown and cannot be given. Again, superiors have limitations in giving ‘carrots’ as decisions regarding promotion, merit increments etc. are decided at the highest levels and the immediate superior may not have any say in these matters.
Again, those who use ‘carrot’ and ‘stick’ may not use them consistently. Thus, the subordinates face the problem of predictability of leadership styles of their boss and of knowing what is expected of them, which in turn lead to job dissatisfaction, lack of self confidence, tension and anxiety on the job, resulting in low productivity.
Another problem is when the subordinate is given some tangible rewards for each of his good acts, he expects such rewards (mostly money or other concessions) for whatever he does. If he fails to receive the reward once, he reacts to it strongly and his enthusiasm dampens suddenly. In other words a money culture develops with the result that employees start expecting extra – payment even in the form of ‘bribe’ or ‘tips’ or allowance for what ever they do which otherwise forms part of their duties for which they are paid. What is a fair day’s work becomes difficult to define.
The excessive use of punishment has many ill effects. Subordinates show aggression towards the punishing authority and towards the Department, either openly or in-disguise which affects their work and their relations with others. They may also experience feelings of tension and anxiety causing even health problems such a headache, nausea, ulcer and heart problems like hypertension. Their attitude towards the department hardens, and they resist any change. Some of them take to hard core unionism to retaliates against the actions of management, which is the object substitute for their boss for the type of treatment they receive. In general, the resentment of the staff towards punitive supervisory style may add to union strength. All these make Management’s task of introducing such changes as mechanization and computerization for increasing in efficiency, rather difficult, when the Unions of above types assume all out uncompromising attitudes.
Finally, the question is what is the effective/ideal type of leadership which supervisors should exercise towards their staff? and what are the lesions, the trainees should learn about ‘Leadership’ from this paper?
The ideal type of leadership depends upon the(1) the personality of the superior (2) the abilities, capabilities, and socio cultural background of subordinates and (3) exigencies of the situation.
Democratic/non-directive/participatory Leadership style allows subordinates experience balance of power with the boss. But such balancing can be very threatening to a boss who is insecure as a person or insecure of his ability or because he has not learnt to share his power constructively. As they may find their boss to be authoritarian and that they may have to submit to them, they may in turn want their subordinates to submit to them as if to get back part of their lost respect. The tendency goes from top to bottom of the organisation till the level of Bapus who takes it out on his wife or family or on the visitors, showing arrogance and condescending attitudes. He compensates his lost prestige at least by the extra-money he collects as ‘tips’ from the helpless visitors.
The question is whether the superior who has an authoritarian attitude can adopt a democratic approach towards his subordinates. Though one may find it difficult at the first sight, it is possible if he makes an honest attempt and also if he realizes that his giving up some power to his subordinates, invariably results in his increasing control over them and that they do a good job of what is entrusted to them, with the result he can face his boss with some-thing worth while to his credit which no authoritarian boss can overlook, His boss impressed by his commendable performance may certainly consider him as a person worthy of enjoying more freedom, discretion and support from him.
Second, it is necessary for the superior to develop self-awareness that is, realizing what he has to achieve. Does he want to achieve some momentary he go satisfaction by shouting at his subordinates and by making all the decisions by himself or he wants to get best out of his people and prove that he is an efficient leader and most efficient officer, beyond doubt. Once he realizes that the second one is the objective he will share his power constructively with his people. He will also find that he derives satisfaction of sense of power and achievement. When he is able to work through his people by sharing his power. Giving power to his subordinates does not mean that he should be just a onlooker of what the members do. On the other hand, he should actively involve himself in the group activities without always throwing his weight around. If he takes a back seat, he is abdicating his leadership role. He fails in role assumption. This is the predominant characteristic of Free Rein style or liaise-faire style of leadership. Member Secretary of committee, Chairman of a Board of Trustees, the convener of a task committee etc. display this type of leadership.
The Background of Subordinates
The subordinates may differ in their knowledge, skills, abilities, experience, seniority, ambitions, ability to learn, sense of direction (perception of goals) etc., which constitute their intellectual and personality back-ground. Similarly, they may differ in their social back ground in the sense that they may like to have social relations in the work place in different degrees. Some might expect family type of relationship (social intimacy) in the work place, others may want only functional relations necessary to have peace at work. Because of the early training and family experiences, some might look for personal attention, guidance and approval, emotional support and detailed instructions, while others expect only general instructions and guidelines, may like to have freedom and responsibility and might like to feel important.
The leader should cerate conditions for the satisfactions of the needs of persons who value social relationships and those value status, freedom and responsibility.
The leader should allow more freedom and responsibility to his subordinates who are relatively high in their intellectual background and who display maturity and let them to the work under general supervision.
In the case those who are relatively low in their intellectual back ground, the leader should exercise more control by way of giving them instructions, guidance and follow up, so also in the case of those who look for intimate social relationships in the work place.
The leader should see that all his subordinates are treated with human dignity and respect.
He should show sense belonging to the group of his subordinates and be one with them in his interactions as the member of his group, at the same time he should have distinct identity of his own as a person. Thus, he is able to see things as his subordinates see them. This skill which is required as a leadership quality is called empathy.
His separate identity referred to above should be a part of extended identity of the Department Management. In this identity he should uphold the principle and policies of the Department and should implement them as the representative of the management.
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